Outline the View That Crime Is Socially Constructed Essay

This essay will offer different definitions of crime, suggesting that it is a social construction as it varies across culture, time and belief. It will examine the role of social construction, through interpretation and meaning, in the identification, reporting and legal consequences of criminal acts. After illustrating how fear, escalated by the media, can directly affect crime, it will conclude that crime and its consequences are socially constructed. The obvious definition of crime is the legal definition of an act which breaks the law. However, the Oxford English Dictionary extends this to include an act which is ‘injurious to the public welfare Â… An evil or injurious act; an offence, sin; esp. of a grave character (Mooney et†¦show more content†¦Evidence suggests that the meaning attached to criminal acts influence the reporting, recording and legal consequences. For example, quantitative evidence or data demonstrates a substantial increase in crime until 19 95 and an apparent slight decrease since then (Maquire, 1997, p.158). Qualitative evidence questions this by suggesting that crime is greatly under-reported for reasons such as the feeling that the crime was not serious enough. In contradiction, Maguire (1997) suggests that there is an increased reporting of crimes, for example, through having greater access to a telephone. In relation to conviction, Eitzen (1986, p.427) demonstrates that white-collar crime and street crime carry different legal penalties, thus illustrating the different meanings they hold. Today concerns are often expressed about the increasing magnitude and changing nature of crime, which can lead to the perception that life was better in the past. Geoffrey Pearson (1983) suggests that this is one example in the history of ‘respectable fears which, it is argued, are a result of a decline in the stability of social structures, shared morality and values witnessed in, for example, the increase in single-parent families. Cohen (1973) suggests that societies do, periodically, experience these social fears or ‘moral panics when something or someone isShow MoreRelatedOutline and assess the view that crime and deviance are socially constructed1021 Words   |  5 Pagesï » ¿Outline and assess the view that crime and deviance are socially constructed There has been a pleather of research regarding the issue of crime and deviance. A definition of crime and deviance can be explained in relative terms which are dependant on any particular society’s interpretation of crime and deviance. Cultures differ from one society to another and the general consensus of right and wrong can also evolve throughout time. Definitions of crime and deviance can evolve with factors suchRead MoreKarl Marx s Theory Of Crime And Deviance1696 Words   |  7 PagesKarl Marx was a sociologist in the eighteenth century and was one of the first to develop and explain a conflict perspective on how society functions, he was a liberal reformist who had more radical views about the origins of crime and deviance. He became popular in the US and UK during the 1970’s. Like many radical criminologists, he developed the perspective of the conflict theory that explained how some social interactions result in to conflict and how individuals engage in con flict daily toRead MoreEssay about Social Deviance1286 Words   |  6 Pagesacceptable, and defining who we are - always done in opposition to what is unreal, unexpected, unacceptable and who we are not. If we can accept the reality of change, then designations of deviance are crucial in locating the shifting boundaries of our socially structured reality. (Erikson, 1964) What is perceived as deviant behavior is subject to change depending on our position, place and time. Different cultures have different levels of social order and control, therefore making what can be seenRead MoreLabelling Theories Contribution to the Sociological Understanding of Crime and Deviance1069 Words   |  5 PagesLabelling Theories Contribution to the Sociological Understanding of Crime and Deviance Becker is the main sociologist studying labelling theory on deviance, he argues that social groups create deviance by making the rules whose infraction constitutes deviance. Meaning acts only become deviant when observers perceive it and define it as deviant. An example of this would be the act of nudity, it is accepted in the bedroom between husband and wife or on a nudist campRead MoreCrime And Deviance Essay1649 Words   |  7 PagesCrime can be defined as ‘An action or omission which constitutes an offence and is punishable by law’ (Oxford Dictionary, 2017). It’s the violation of a written law that is set by society and is known as ‘committing a crime’. Deviance is defined as ‘the fact or state of diverging from usual accepted standards, especially in social or sexual behaviour’ (Oxford Dictionaries, 2017). To be deviant would be to perform an act that strays from the normal behaviours, or â€Å"norms† of any given society. ThereRead MoreWhat, if anything, has the discipline of criminology learned from the inclusion of a gendered perspective?3029 Words   |  13 Pagesthe inclusion of a gendered perspective? Gender and Crime Module: Soci308 Deadline: 13/01/2014 Assignment 2: 2,500 words Word Count: 2,500 Module Leader: Dr Karen Evans Student I.D. 200187509 What, if anything, has the discipline of criminology learned from the inclusion of a gendered perspective? In order to whether the discipline of criminology has learned anything from the inclusion of a gendered perspective, this essay will outline historical criminological discourses, addressing keyRead MoreThe Epistemology Of The Decision Making Process Of Burglars1629 Words   |  7 PagesThe aim of this essay is to attempt to identify the epistemology implicated in the research conducted by Emmeline Taylor about the decision making process of burglars. Essay begins with a concise definition of Criminology and a brief outline of ‘Rational Choice Theory’ which can be utilised to understand the decision making process of offenders and to provide a background for the notion of the rationality among burglars whilst acting criminal behaviour. Then it will continue with the explanationRead MoreThe Universal Declaration Of Human Rights3323 Words   |  14 Pagesargument that human rights are socially constructed and do not exist outside of the realm of politics. This will then f eed into the second part of the question where I shall discuss the prioritisation of community values over an alleged universal foundation. Structure The first part of the essay will concern itself with a more genealogical approach by looking at early philosophical origins of human rights and how these evolved over the years. With this I seek to outline the fact that while effortsRead MoreFirstly, Haidt Consider ‘Care’ As Moral Foundation. It1524 Words   |  7 Pagesexpansion of technology and mass media people are aware of certain things through media but â€Å"coverage of public affairs information in the mass media are elite biased† (Zaller, 1992). This information influence people to form political preference. This outline how the elite seek news and information and diffuse through mass population. Thus, there are differences between knowing it and experiencing it. Sometime this creates panic between immigrants because what they have known may be different in practiceRead MoreOutline the sources of secondary data that sociologists use and assess their advantages and disadvantages1500 Words   |  6 Page sï » ¿Outline the sources of secondary data that sociologists use and assess their advantages and disadvantages. (33 marks) A source of secondary data that sociologists use is official statistics, official statistics are quantitative data created by the government or other official bodies. A ten-yearly Census of the entire UK population is done on a range of area’s e.g. births, marriages and divorces. Government use official statistics in policy-making and there are several types of sources: registration

Tax and Gross Income - 1511 Words

TEST 1 Correct Response Indicate whether each of the items listed below would be included (A) in or excluded (B) from gross income for the 2012 tax year. 1. Alimony | | 2. Lottery winnings | | 3. Life insurance proceeds received upon the death of a family member | | 4. Child support payments | | 5. Reimbursement of hospital expenses from a health insurance plan | | 6. Municipal bond interest | | 7. Unemployment compensation | | 8. Scholarships for tuition and books | | 9. Wages | | 10. Farm income | | 11. Inheritances | | Which of the following amounts must be included in the gross income of the recipient? a. Welfare payments | | | b. Royalties | | | c. Child support payments | | | d. Gifts |†¦show more content†¦a. True | | b. False | | | Interest income received by a cash basis taxpayer is generally reported in the tax year it is received. a. True | | b. False | | | Interest on U.S. Treasury Bonds is not taxable. a. True | | b. False | | | Taxpayers must report interest income on Series EE savings bonds as the interest accrues. a. True | | b. False | | | A gift received for opening a bank account is not taxable income to the recipient. a. True | | b. False | | | Child support payments are deductible by the spouse making the payments. a. True | | b. False | | | If a divorce agreement executed in 2012 specifies that a portion of the amount of an alimony payment is contingent upon the status of a child, that portion is considered to be a child support payment. a. True | | b. False | | | Correct Response eBook Problem 2-9 Alimony (LO 2.3) Arlen is required by his divorce agreement to pay alimony of $2,000 a month and child support of $2,000 a month to his ex-wife Jane. What is the tax treatment of these two payments for Arlen and Jane? Arlen is entitled to a deduction for . Jane includes in her income . Answers: only the alimony payments; only the alimony payments. Alimony payments are deductible by the individual making the payments, and they are taxable income to the person receiving the payments. For divorce agreements executed after 1984, alimony payments must meet the following requirements: 1. The paymentsShow MoreRelatedTax On Gross Transportation Income Essay955 Words   |  4 PagesToday, Section 883, Exclusions from Gross Income, is still the life rath that cruise companies cling to save and protect their income from standard U.S. taxation. Since its inception, (a)(1) Ships Operated by certain foreign corporations. Gross income derived by a corporation organized in a foreign country from the international operation of a ship or ships if such foreign country grants an equivalent exemption to corporations organized in the United States. Since, Section 883 ultimately providesRead MoreWeek Seven Paper Work Ac555729 Words   |  3 Pages(AC553) Solution: (A) ADJUSTED GROSS INCOME: This is a measure of income and it used to establish eligibility for financial benefits. It is calculated as gross income from taxable sources minus allowable deductions. Adjusted gross income is important to individual income taxation because it controls individual qualification for numerous deductions and credits. Besides, it can affect individual eligibility for retirement plans. (B) How does ADJUSTED GROSS INCOME AFFECT: (1) Medical DeductionRead MoreFederal Income Tax Research Case1033 Words   |  5 PagesApril of 2015, Elizabeth filed a joint tax return with her husband Gary. Both spouses are 67 years old and have no dependents. After filing their tax return, Elizabeth realized that Gary has 500,000 of embezzled funds in a bank account that she was unaware of. Although the embezzled funds earned $25,000 of interest, they were not reported on the couple’s 2014 tax return. The following income and deductions were reported on the tax return. Gross Income $295,000 Deductions for AGI $8,500 Read MorePhilippines Income Tax Rates1240 Words   |  5 PagesPhilippines Income Tax Rates Income of residents in Philippines is taxed progressively up to  32%. Philippines Income Tax Rate 32% Philippines Corporate Tax Rate 30% Philippines Sales Tax / VAT Rate 12% Taxable Income  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Tax Rate PhP 0 - PhP 10,000:  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   -  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚         5% PhP 10,000 - PhP 30,000:  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚      PhP 500  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚      10% PhP 30,000 - PhP 70,000:  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Read MoreBusiness/Tax Research Assignment1067 Words   |  5 PagesBUSINESS/TAX RESEARCH ASSIGNMENT 1. For the Tax year 2004, is SK eligible to switch from the accrual to cash method of accounting under Rev. Proc. 2001-10? This revenue procedure applies to taxpayer with average annual gross receipts of $1,000,000 or less. Since SK s average annual gross receipt is greater than 1,000,000 for 2004 therefore SK is not eligible to switch from the accrual to cash method of accounting. ( Rev. Proc. 2001-10,2001-1 CB 272) 2. For the tax year 2004, is SK eligibleRead MoreQuestions On The Unrelated Business Income Tax922 Words   |  4 Pagestopic. 1. What is the purpose of the Unrelated Business Income Tax? What factors would cause income that would otherwise qualify as unrelated business income to not be taxed? How is the Unrelated Business Income Tax computed? 2 pts Unrelated business income tax is defined in 26 U.S. Code Section 512 of the Internal Revenue Code as: â€Å"Except as otherwise provided in this subsection, the term â€Å"unrelated business taxable income† means the gross income derived by any organization from any unrelated tradeRead MoreFinancial Accounting Uses The Accrual Concept1470 Words   |  6 Pagesand tax treatments of different transactions may therefore result in an entity’s profit/loss before taxation for a period (or year of assessment) being different from the entity’s taxable income/loss for that period (or year of assessment). Transnet is a South African resident company as it was incorporated in the Republic of South Africa (page 159 of the Transnet Annual Financial Statements 2015 Volume 2) and will therefore be taxed on its world-wide income. For an amount to constitute gross incomeRead MoreRevere Case684 Words   |  3 PagesInterest Potential Gross Income $91,200 Less: Allowance for Vacancy @ 5% 4,560 Effective Gross Income $86,640 Less: Operating Expenses Total $25,194 Real Estate Taxes 7,800 Utilities 4,330 Insurance Fee 2,600 Maintenance Fee 1,800 Management Fee @ 5% 4,332 Repairs @ 5% 4,332 Net Operating Income $61,446 Less: Annual Debt Service 45,900 BTCF from Operations $15,546 Less: Income Tax 3,003.89 ATCF fromRead MoreGross Income Implications For The Individual Who Accepted The Bribe1089 Words   |  5 PagesGross Income implications for the individual who accepted the bribe: The definition of gross income per section 1 of the Income Tax Act for any resident is: †¢ the total amount †¢ in cash or otherwise †¢ received by, or accrued to, or in favour of such resident †¢ during such year or period of assessment †¢ excluding receipts and accruals of a capital nature The bribe of R300 000 meets all the aforementioned requirements of the gross income definition except for whether or not the amount has been ‘receivedRead MoreGovernment Budget1521 Words   |  7 PagesExpenditure Item Transfer payments Social Security Medicare Law enforcement Education Infrastructural and facilities development and maintenance Revenue Item 1 Payroll Taxes Income Tax Property Taxes Revenue Item 2 Income Taxes Transfers Transfers Revenue Item 3 Corporate Taxes Sales and gross Taxes Sales and gross Taxes The Federal revenue sources enumerated above are just some of the means through the US Government makes money. Payroll taxes are federal or state taxes that are withheld

Working Procedure and Notes of the Ball Mill free essay sample

Ball mill is the key equipment for grinding after the crushing process, which is widely used in the manufacture industries, such as cement, silicate, new building material, refractory material, fertilizer, ferrous metal, nonferrous metal and glass ceramics and can be used for the dry and wet grinding for all kinds of ores and other grind-able materials. Between balance wheel and middle wheel of ball mill gear box, mesh. Tooth elevation do not install according to the regulation, this will cause the ball mill high speed shaft pinion drives one side intermediate shaft big gear wheel, while ball mill intermediate shaft pinion drives balance wheel, ball mill balance wheel drives the other side intermediate shaft that makes ball mill gear box cannot form two sides load sharing rotation, occur beat voice, it is dangerous. ) ball mill should not work under the situation of overload and underfeeding. 3) ball mill should rotate according to the specified direction ,otherwise it will not discharge or damage the machine. We will write a custom essay sample on Working Procedure and Notes of the Ball Mill or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The stages of load test run are: (1) Add certain materials and 1/3 quantity of steel mill (max. ball load refers to ball mill instruction) test for 12~~24hours. (2) Add 2/3 quantity of steel ball run for 24~48 hours 3) According to the discharge situation of ball mill, the output of accepted products refers to the actual ball load of the same kind beneficiation plan t to makes sure the reasonable ball load of this ball mill, then test for at least 72hours. In the above process, the time of test run and increase of the load capacity should according to the big wheel gear and pinion and the running-in situation (tooth surface, temperature rise, noise, contact)of gear box. Full load test run will be process till gear surface contact precision reaches the designed requirement. 5) during test run, cooling and lubricating system of ball mill should work smooth; main bearing, transmission bearing, gear box temperature should be normal.

The Life of Jimi Hendrix free essay sample

A look at the life and achievements of singer Jimi Hendrix. His musical styles and influences are discussed in detail. This paper provides an in depth study on the life of Jimi Hendrix. His musical styles and influences are discussed in detail. The focus is to see why he was regarded as one of the greatest rock guitarists of all time. Jimi Hendrix is arguably the most innovative electric guitarist of all time, combining blues, hard rock, modern jazz, and soul to create his own distinct sound. Jimi began playing at the age of twelve, when his father bought him an old guitar in which Jimi turned upside down and restrung. He first learned the blues from greats such as B.B. King and Muddy Waters. When Jimi was seventeen, he joined the armed forces, where he met future bassist, Billy Cox. The two enhanced their skills as they played for troops around the camp. We will write a custom essay sample on The Life of Jimi Hendrix or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page When Hendrix was discharged from the army, he began to tour the Chitlin Circuit with different artists such as Little Richard and the Isley Brothers. Eventually Hendrix was discovered by Chas Chandler of the Animals, and took Jimi to England and made him a star. When Jimi came back to America and performed at the Monterey Pop Festival, he became an instant success. Over the next few years, Jimi put out some of the most popular, creative and innovative music that is still emulated today. The focus of this paper is to show how Hendrix created his own style of music that was heavily based on the blues and other musical styles and scenes.

Creating employment and business opportunities for ODA

Creating employment and business opportunities for ODA Introduction The Olympic Development Authority is an executive non departmental Public Body which is responsible to the Secretary of state for Culture, Media and Sport. The Olympic Development Authority was first started as a Statutory Corporation by the London 2012 Olympic Games and Paralympics Games act 2006 on March 30th 2006 and it is also the Statutory Planning Authority for the Olympic Park Area (ODA, 2010).Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Creating employment and business opportunities for ODA specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The mission of the Olympic Delivery Authority which it does its level best to achieve is the delivery of venues, facilities and infrastructure and provision of transport facilities on time and performance of such activities on time and in a manner that ensures that there is maximum delivery of a sustainable legacy within the available budget. In trying to create new employment and busines s opportunities locally, regionally and nationally, the Olympic development authority, the organization should carefully consider its PESTLE and SWOT analysis in order to create a human resourcing strategy that is effective and efficient and is in line with the goals, objectives and mission of the organization (Stevens Loudon 2005, p.27). PESTLE analysis on Olympic Development Authority A PESTLE Analysis is usually used to take note of the external forces that affect an organization. A PESTLE analysis on an organization usually analyses the Political, Economical, Social and Technological Environment. Political Factors Affecting Olympic Development Authority This step involves a careful look at the political factors that influence the operations of an organization. In most cases, political factors that affect an organization can either come with advantages or disadvantages. In trying to ensure the delivery of its employment and business objective to â€Å"create new employment and business opportunities locally, regionally and nationally†, the Olympic Development Authority should consider all the duties and responsibilities that come to the organization such as the type of government in place and a democratic or dictatorship government which would ensure that the organization is able to perform all its duties without interference from the political leaders of the country.Advertising Looking for report on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More It would also ensure that the organization would be able to take advantage of all the available opportunities and without any interference from corrupt officials especially from the government. Political factors such as legislation on minimum wage would also be a great influence on the human resourcing strategy that the organization would come up with (Henry 2008, p.57). All organizations must stick by all the legislation rules concern ing the minimum amount of money that they need to pay individuals on the work that they perform. Political factors also affect the laws on discrimination. The Olympic Development authority has been fortunate enough to have carried out a public sector equality duties since its addition to the to the London Olympic and Paralympics Games act which was enacted in 2006 for public bodies. For race duties, the Olympic development Authority ensures that there is promotion of equal opportunities for people for all races that have the needed qualifications or those that have already been employed by the Olympic Development Authority (ODA 2010). The organization is also tasked with the development of great relations among members of the community who come from different racial groups. The organization is supposed to ensure that there is no harassment of individuals on the basis of their being disabled. This is done because the organization is involved in the arrangement of activities that incl ude disabled people and encourages promotion of equal opportunities for these individuals (Pahl Ritcher 2009, 52). The Olympic development authority is also supposed to promote positive attitudes which would encourage disabled people apply for jobs in the organization and to encourage the disabled people in the organization to feel more comfortable at the workplace.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Creating employment and business opportunities for ODA specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Also in relation to the public sector equality duties that are affected by the political affiliation of the organization to the government to follow various rules, the Olympic Development Authority has a duty to identify all the policies and functions that affect the human resourcing function of the organization and ensure that they are adhered to (Johnson, Scholes Whittington 2008,73). The organization, together with the Olympics or ganizing committee is also supposed to ensure that they gather and analyze information that affects them and involve all the stakeholders in coming up with the correct decisions regarding creation of employment opportunities. For example, the organization is supposed to completely get rid of employment discrimination cases that might exist in the organization based on gender and transsexual issues and introduce strict policies on matters that regard sexual harassment. Strict guidelines and measures must be put in place to ensure that no members of staff are sexually harassed. The Olympic Development Authority must also ensure that it comes up with its own effective Voluntary codes and practices. Failure to come up with effective codes and practices would lead the government to introduce its own codes and regulations which must be strictly followed by the organization failure to which might lead to imposing of fines or imprisonment of management members of the organization if the law s violated are in relation to human resources. Economical factors All organizations are affected by economic factors in both the national and global fields. Fiscal policy that is enacted at a national level affect all businesses in a country. National interest rate also affects the financial aspect of a company depending on how it has financed its business. An economic climate will affect how an organization is able to get hold of its funds and how it spends these funds. In relation to creation of new employment opportunities for the Olympic Development Authority, a good economic climate would ensure that the organization is able to hire new employees and retain their current employees (Grant 2005, p.447).Advertising Looking for report on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More A good economic climate would also ensure that the organization is able to take part in activities that would be able to bring in new and profitable business such as entry into new and promising business ventures with other organizations. In the business field, an organization requires money to make money and a good economic climate would ensure that the organization would have access to the funds. The main intention of this is to make sure that it remains competitive in the market locally, regionally and globally. When an organization is in a good economic position, it can be able to hire the right members for the organization who hold all the required qualifications that the business needs in order to carry out its operational functions. On the other hand, if an economic undergoes inflation, it is likely to have its financial position affected which would have a direct impact on its ability to employ and maintain employees. If the Olympic Development Authority was in a poor financ ial position, it would probably terminate some of the contracts that it has with its employees in order to be able to stay afloat in the market. In so doing, the organization would still have to stick to all the legal rules that are tied to dismissing of employees (Pahl Ritcher 2009, 80). The legal department would prove very helpful in ensuring that the organization abides to all the labor laws of the country regarding to this act. This would help in the prevention of civil litigation which might damage the public image of the organization. For Olympic Development Authority to become or remain successfully in the market, it should be able to shift its business position in relation to stakeholders that affect its economic position and condition (Phillips Gully 2011, 48). Social Factors Social factors that affect an organization include demographic factors which can influence the Olympic Development Authority. The demographic factors include such things as age distribution and heal th consciousnesses, cultural factors and population growth rate of the stakeholders and target population for an organization. With the increase in health awareness of most individuals, it would be imperative for Olympic Development Authority to market itself and get more people involved in the activities of the organization. Eating and social lifestyles of most individuals in the world have changed and the Olympic Development Authority can use this factor in its marketing strategy to market its business on the local, regional and national front. The organization can run an aggressive campaign in the media to get people to enroll in the activities organized by the Olympic Development Authority (ODA). Through the campaigns, the organization can use health experts like doctors, nutritionists and recreation management experts to sensitize people on the benefits of Olympics gathered by the organization. Illnesses like diabetes and high blood pressure should be used to encourage people t o take part in the activities of the organization (Tansky Heneman, 2006, 59) A majority of individuals suffer from these illnesses or know people that are close to them that have been affected by such illnesses and this would go a long way in helping the organization expand its market share locally, regionally and nationally through an increase in the clientele base and an expansion in the pool of the employees that are available for the organization to recruit and train and therefore, increase innovation in the human resources department. The greater the pool of applicants to the jobs that are available in an organization, the greater the amount of creativity in an organization and therefore, the more competitive and economically advantaged an organization is compared to its competitors (Haderberg Rieple, p.588). Technological Factors Technology has evolved bringing with it more opportunities for organizations to grow by increasing their product awareness in the market therefore, creating new business opportunities and employment opportunities in the organization. With the growth of social networking sites like face book, twitter, my space and other sites, the Olympic Development Authority can be able to reduce the amount of money that the spend on marketing and advertising campaigns and instead use the money on innovation through their research and development initiatives. Research and development usually lead to the best and competitive practices for an organization, therefore, placing the organization ahead of others in the industry (Hill Jones 2009, 489). Legal Factors Legal factors affecting an organization usually include laws relating to an organization in regard to its health, consumer, labor, activity, discrimination and anti-trust law. The Olympic Development Authority has to ensure that it follows all the labor laws in hiring and compensating its employees. Human resources are one of the most important professionals in an organization and they mu st be properly taken care of so that they remain productive in the organization. An organization that takes care of its employees in the way that it is supposed to ensures that it has a good reputation and image in the market. This eases the effort that the organization puts in dealing with its stakeholders (Bratton Gold 2001, p.32). Environmental Factors These are the factors that are directly influenced or related to the environment such as climatic factors, geographical location, insurance and the people’s activities such as tourism. Tourism would be one of the activities that would have a great positive effect on the Olympic Development Authority by bringing in a great and diverse pool of individuals that would have a positive effect on the organization. This would help the organization in its human resource strategies function by improving its public image. It would have an impact on the kind of people that would apply to get hired into the organization. The higher the qualifications of the people who work for the organization, the better the productivity of the organization through creation of new opportunities to expand the organization and improve its performance in the local, regional and national front (Hendry 1994 p.40). SWOT Analysis SWOT Analysis in an organization provides for a planning tool for organization based on the internal strengths of the organization, internal weaknesses of the organization, opportunities that present themselves to the organization and the threats that are available in the external environment surrounding the organization. A SWOT Analysis for an organization can help it to make discoveries on what the organization can keep on doing in order to stay ahead of its competitors, which areas the competitors of the business organization excel in compared to an organization of their choice and why, to make discoveries whether the business organization is making full advantage of all the opportunities that are available to the organization and offer an insight into how best the organization can deal with challenges that might present themselves to the organization and use them to their advantage (Capon 2008, p.67). Strengths The Strengths of the Olympic Development Authority include its organizational structure which is functional. Such an organizational structure ensures that all the departments of the organization are aware of the duties that they should abide by and most of the time they have targets that they should meet. This is a good organizational structure for the ticketing and merchandising departments which usually fall under the sales department. When the human resources in these departments are of the sales targets that they are supposed to meet, they are more motivated which efficiently increases their productivity (Henry 1994, 33). An introduction of bonus schemes when employees hit their targets is a great human resource and business strategy for an organization. Such an organizatio nal structure is also a cost effective initiative for the whole organization since it reduces the number of employees on the payroll and all the present employees have their roles clearly stated. When human resources in an organization have their roles and duties clearly defined, they are more productive which is an advantage to the organization since it means that it is more competitive when compared to similar organizations in the market (Hill Jones 2009, 19). Weaknesses The Olympic Development authority usually advertises its job opportunities on its website which no doubt greatly limits the number and pool of applicants to the available jobs. There are many individuals who are highly qualified and would be appropriate for the advertised jobs, but they might not have access to either a computer, internet access or both. It would have a great impact on the pool of applicants available for recruitment to the Olympic development Authority if the organization would advertise its ava ilable jobs on a greater number of sites or media outlets for example on the newspapers or on social networking sites. A greater pool of applicants’ would mean that the organization would have access to more talented individuals. This would therefore mean more innovation in coming up with great and competitive ideas. Advertising in more media outlets would also mean that the number of applicants that would apply to the organization would be more diverse. The more the diverse the individuals hired into the organization, the more the ideas that will be shared increasing research opportunities for the company thereby, leading to effective and competitive means of increasing market share and productivity (Capon 2008, 45). Opportunities Since the Olympic development Authority is a growing organization, it can take advantage of its affiliation to the government to expand its market penetration. This can be through negotiation of tax grants or increased allocation of funds to expand into the local, regional and national market. This type of affiliation would prove advantageous especially in comparison to private firms which might not have the opportunity of these privileges (Phillips Gully 2011, 72). Threats Threats into the performance of the Olympic Development Authority include similar organizations which might have better and more competitive policies in their human resources departments. The impact of the correct human resources in the positions in organization cannot be underestimated. The right human resources in an organization ensure that the needed work is done in an organization and that an organization is able to achieve the targets and needed growth. The right human resources strategies that recruit and maintain the right employees should be enacted in the organization (Phillips Gully, 74). Human Resource Plan The organization should focus more on human resources strategy and increase the requirements that need to be fulfilled to in terms of age , gender, sexual orientation and religion. Making the rules and policies clearer in relation to these parameters would foster a more positive working environment for employees and raise the caliber of employees that apply to the organization (Armstrong 2008, p.93). The organization would also have a variety of professionals to select from around the globe. The Olympic Development Authority should offer growth opportunities for their employees through mentorship programs, strategic leadership practices and collaboration with government or private agencies that would create better opportunities with important local, regional or national partners. References List Armstrong, M., 2008. Strategic Human Resource Management: a Guide to Action, 4th edition. Kogan Page : London. Bratton, J., Gold, J. 2001. Human Resource management: Theory and Practice. New York: Routeledge. Capon, C., 2008. Understanding Strategic Management. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Grant, R. M., 2005., Contemporary Strat egy Analysis, 5th edition. Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing. Haderberg, A., Rieple, A. 2008. Strategic management: Theory Application. England: Oxford University Press. Hendry, C., 1994. Human Resource Strategies for International Growth. London: Routeledge. Henry, A., 2008. Understanding Strategic management. England: Oxford University press. Hill, C. Jones, G., 2009. Strategic Management: an Integrated Approach. Ohio: Cengage Brain. Johnson, G., Scholes, K., and Whittington, R., 2008. Exploring Corporate Strategy, New Jersey: Prentice Hall Pahl, N., Ritcher, A., 2009. SWOT Analysis- Idea, Methodology A Practical Approach. Germany: Druck Bindung Books. Phillips, J., Gully, S. M., 2011. Organizational Behaviour: Tools for Success. Ohio: Cengage Brain. Stevens, R. E., Loudon, D., 2005. Marketing Planning Guide. New York: Routeledge. Tansky, J.W., Heneman, R. L., 2006. Human Resource Strategies for the High Growth Entrepreneurial Firm. USA, Information age. The Olympic Developm ent Authority (ODA). 2010. Sustainable Development Strategy.  Web.

Taking Community College Classes in High School A Guide

Taking Community College Classes in High School A Guide SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Are you a high school student who is interested in taking classes at a community college? Community college classes can be a great way for high school studentsto take more challenging courses and prepare for college. Read on to learn everything you need to know about community college classes for high school students: the benefits of taking community college classes in high school, when totake them, and how you can start getting enrolled. How Can a High School Student Take Community College Classes? Aren’t community college classes justfor college students? Actually, no. While the primarypurpose of community collegeis to provide an education tocollege students, mostnow alsoofferclasses to people of varying ages and levels of education,from children to senior citizens. Many community colleges allow high school studentsto take certain classes. Sometimes high school studentsare only able to enroll in introductory classes, and they may also be required to submit their high school transcript or a teacher recommendation as proof that they can handle a college-level course. Some high schools have organized programs with community colleges that allow high schoolstudentsto take college classes as a replacement for one or more of their regular high school classes.This is especially common in smaller high schools or those with few advanced or AP course offerings because it lets high school students take challenging classes they wouldn’t have been able to take otherwise. These classes can help high school students strengthen their transcripts and prepare for college. Other times, high school studentschoose to take community college classes without receiving any high school credit; however; they may be able to receive college credit once they enroll in a college or university. What Are the Benefits of Taking Community College Classes inHigh School? Why would a high school studentbe interested in taking community college classes? There are several benefits. Benefit #1: You Can Take More Advanced Classes If your high school doesn’t offer certain advanced classes, taking them at a community college can be a great way to strengthen your transcript.If your high school doesn’t offer many or even any AP classes, you may be concerned that your school's lack of challenging classes will put you behind other students when applying to and starting college. You may also be particularly strong in a certain subject and want to take an advanced course in it, either because you have taken all your high school’s classes in that subject, or they are not challenging enough for you. At my high school, each year, several students who had taken AP Calculus as juniors would take Calculus III at the local community college to gain more math skills and be better prepared for college math classes. Taking these classes at a community college while you are still in high school can help prepare you for college classes and possibly allow you to skip some introductory classes once you get to college. GotCredit/Flickr Benefit #2: They Can Help Your College Application Stand Out Having college classes on your transcript is a great way to strengthen your transcript and your college applications.Your community college classes may be included on your high school transcript, labeledin such a way to show they are college-level classes, or, if not, you can include your community college transcript withyour applications. Taking community college classes in high school shows that you can take initiative, are hard working, and have strong academic skills, which are all qualities colleges like to see in applicants. Benefit #3: You'll Be Better Prepared for College If you are concerned about college or simply want to be better prepared when you set foot on campus, taking classes at a community college is a great way to introduce yourself to the rigor of college-level classes. College classes, even at community colleges, are usually more difficult and faster-paced than high school classes, and by taking one or more in high school, you can be better prepared for university classes. This will likely help you get better grades and feel less stressed as a college student. Want to build the best possible college application? We can help. PrepScholar Admissions is the world's best admissions consulting service. We combine world-class admissions counselors with our data-driven, proprietary admissions strategies. We've overseen thousands of students get into their top choice schools, from state colleges to the Ivy League. We know what kinds of students colleges want to admit. We want to get you admitted to your dream schools. Learn more about PrepScholar Admissions to maximize your chance of getting in. What Are the Drawbacks to Taking Community College Classes in High School? Though there are major benefits to community college classes for high school students, there are also some drawbacks. Drawback #1: They Can Be Challenging College classes can be quite different from high school classes; they are usually more challenging, faster-paced, and require more homework and studying. If you are not prepared for this, taking a community college class can be very stressful, and you may not get the grade you want. Drawback #2: They May Not Always Be Fulfilling Sometimes,community college classes aren't challenging, in fact, in some cases high school students feel that the community college classes they take are easy, especially when compared to AP or other advanced classes. If you are used to rigorous classes, there's a chance that you will find your community college classes too easy, especially if you are taking introductory classes. This may result in you not learning as much as you'd like to. A good way to reducethe chanceof this happening is to ask the school for asyllabusof the class or classes you are interested in taking. Syllabi will usually include the topics students learn and major assignments, and they can help you get a better idea of what the class will cover and how quickly itwill cover it. Drawback #3: They Can Be Expensive Most students do not have to pay for the classes they take in high school, and it can be difficult to afford the tuition required for college classes.Even though community college classes are typically less expensive than regular 4-year colleges, tuition is still usually at least $100 per credit hour, which means taking one community college class can cost several hundred dollars or more. Sometimes high schools will pay for their students to take community college classes, especiallyif they don't offer a particular class themselves. Ask your academic adviserwhat your school's policy is for covering the costs of community college classes. If they do help with costs, this can save you thousands of dollars! However, if your high school doesn't cover community college costs, be sure to choose your community college classes carefully so you know you are getting the best value for your money. Also, if your high school offers a similar course, such as an AP class, you may want to consider taking that instead. Taking community college classes may meanyou have to pay tuition fees and other expenses. (Tax Credits/Flickr) Read the sections below to learn more about how to make smart decisions when taking community college classes and minimize negative impacts. When Should You Take Community College Classes? You should think carefully about what semester and year you want to enroll in a community college class.It’s recommended that you don’t take community college classes until you are at least a junior in high school. By the time you are an upperclassman, you will likely have had more challenging courses and will be more prepared for college-level classes. If you take a community college class early on in high school, you may find it overwhelming or too challenging. This can cause you to get alow grade that won’t get you many of the benefits listed above. Another important decision is whether to take a community college class during the school year or over the summer. Most community colleges offer both options, though not all courses may be offered each semester.If you are getting high school credit or replacing a high school class, then you will likely take the community college class during the school year. If there are certain times of the year when you are less busy (for example, a semester when you don’t have a sport or have less challenging classes), you may want to take a community class then so that you can spend more time on it.However, if the community college class you are interested in isn’t earning you high school credit or replacing a high school class, it may be easier for you to take it during the summer.Taking a community college class during the summer gives you more time to concentrate on it because you won’t have to balancea full high school course loadat the same time. Don’t try to take a community college class if you are already busy with your high school classes and activities. Taking a college course when you don’t have enough time to put towards it can cause you to feel stressed and overwhelmed, and it may cause you to get a low grade in the class, which won’t do much to help your applications or prepare you for college. It’s also recommended that you start by enrolling inonly one community college class at a time, especially if you are taking it during the school year. This will give you a chance to get used to college classes withoutgetting in over your head. Don't sign up for too many community college classes at once, or else you may find yourself feeling overwhelmed, and your high school grades may drop. How Do You Decide Which Community College Classes to Take? You will want to think carefully about which community college classes to take in order to maximize their usefulness and how much you learn. Although high school students oftencan't sign up for classes until after full-time college students have, you will likely still have a lot of potential class options left to choose from. Read through your community college’s course catalog and think about the following questions to help you choose which courses to take: Consideration #1: Are There Classes YourHigh School Doesn't Offer That You'd Like to Take? Look at your high school’s course catalog and think about the classes you plan to take before you graduate. Is there a particular class you wish you could take but isn’t offered by your high school?This can include advanced classes such as upper-level math classes or AP classes, or it can simply be classes you are interested in but your school doesn’t offer, likecertainforeign language classes or a specialized history course. If so, look to see if your community college offers a course in that subject. Colleges, even community colleges, usually have a wider course selection than high schools, so you may be able to find a class you’re interested in.Often when you take a class you enjoy you’ll get a higher grade in it than a class you don’t find interesting because you are more motivated to study and do the homework. Consideration #2: Which Classes Will Be Useful for College? Another thing to consider when choosing community college classes is which classes will help best prepare you for college.If you already know what you plan on majoring in, then you may want to take classes related to that field of study. For example, if you know you want to be pre-med, check out your community college’s biology or human physiology classes. If you are not sure what you’d like to study in college, almost all majors are required to take at least one math and one writing class, so courses in those subjects will likely be useful later on. However, don’t assume that you will automatically get college credit for the community college classes you take because some colleges have very strict policies about transfer credit. Even if you don’t receive college credit, remember that taking community college classes is still useful because they strengthen your college applications and help you be better prepared for future college classes. Consideration #3: Which Subjects Does Your High School Recommend? Your school may already have a list of community college classes that previous students have taken and enjoyed, and they may also have a list of community college classes that they give credit for or accept as a substitute for a particular high school class. If your high school has recommendations, this can make choosing which coursesto take easier, because you will already have some idea of what classes other students have found useful.This information is also helpful if you are looking to get high school credit for your community college class. Consideration #4: What Prerequisites Are Required? When you see a class you find interesting, check the course description to see if there are any prerequisites or prior knowledge you need to have in order to takethe class.College classes are already more challenging than high school classes, and taking a class you aren’t prepared for on top of that can make it very difficult to get a good grade in the class. In addition to checking prerequisites, you may also want to start by taking introductory classes to ease yourself into college-level courses. These classes usually have the word â€Å"Introduction† or â€Å"Introductory† in their title or have a course number that begins with the number one (such as English 101). Consideration #5: When Are Certain Classes Offered? Logistics are also an important consideration when choosing classes. There may be certain days of the week or months of the year when you have more time to devote to your community college classes. As mentioned above, it’s important to make sure you have enough free time in your schedule before you enroll in a community college course.By choosing classes that fill well in your schedule, you will make your community college experience less stressful and more enjoyable. Looking through yourcalendar may help you decide which community college classes to take. How to Enroll in Community College Classes After you have decided which class you want to take, you need to begin the enrollment process.Before you enroll, talkto your academic adviserat your high school to learn if this class will be included on your transcript or if you will be able to use it to substitute for another course. You may need to provide them with a course description or syllabus to review. You should also ask them if your high school will cover the costs of the class, and, if so, how and when they will do so. Next you need to enroll in the community college. This process varies by school. Some only require you to fill out basic information about yourself, especially if you will only be taking a few classes. Others require the same enrollment process a full-time student attending the school goes through, which may mean filling out an application and submitting test scores. This process can take up to a few weeks, so give yourself enough time to complete it before classes start. Once you are enrolled, you can sign up for the class you want to take. Remember that, as mentioned above, oftentimes high school students have to wait until after current college students have had a chance to select their courses before they are able to sign up forclasses. Almost all community colleges have online enrollment, but you can also usuallysign up by mailing in a form or going to the campus office and selecting your classesin person. At this time, you will likely have to submit your tuition payment.After you sign up for a class, you will be sent information about it. This information usually includes where and when the class meets, what textbooks and other materials you need, and a course syllabus that tells you what topicsthe class will cover. Before the class starts, buy your textbooks and any other materials you need, and make sure you know how to get to the campus.On the first day of class, try to arrive a few minutes early so that you are ready and prepared when your first college class begins.Congratulations, you're now on your way to becoming a college student! Summary Many students have the option of enrolling in classes at a local community college as a way to take a more advanced class or help prepare them for college. You may be able to substitute a community college class for one of your high school classes or get credit for it once you start college. Even though they can be expensive and challenging, taking community college classes while in high school can strengthen your transcript and help you be more prepared for college classes. Wait to take community college classes until you are at least a junior and know you have enough time to devote to the class. To decide which class to take, look over the school’s course catalog, talk to your academic adviser, and think about which classes will be helpful when you go to college. What's Next? Want to know what classes you can take in high school?We have a complete list of high school classes so you can see what your options are. Struggling with a certain class and wondering if you should drop it? We have a guide that willhelp you decide whether to drop a class or notand explains how it will impact your college applications. Trying to decide between community college classes and AP classes?Which one looks better on college applications? Read our guide for a complete overview of both. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points or your ACT score by 4 points?We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now:

Role of Inflammation in the Development of Atherosclerosis Essay - 1

Role of Inflammation in the Development of Atherosclerosis - Essay Example Normal endothelium does not allow binding of white blood cells. It is only after the damage of endothelium, that a series of events is initiated which ensues in inflammation. In this essay, the role of inflammation in atherosclerosis will be discussed through the review of the suitable literature.  Atherosclerosis is a condition in which the wall of the artery thickens due to the accumulation of fatty substances like cholesterol and triglycerides (Binder & Witztum, 2011). The condition affects arterial blood vessels secondary to chronic inflammation of the innermost wall of the arteries and is mainly caused due to the accumulation of macrophages. Accumulation of macrophages is promoted by low-density lipoproteins. Stiffening of arteries occurs due to the formation of multiple plaques within the arteries. There are basically 3 groups of atherosclerotic lesions and they are progressive atherosclerotic lesions, nonatherosclerotic intimal lesions and healed atherosclerotic plaques (Lib by et al, 2011). Certain preexisting intimal lesions have intimal thickening and fatty streaks and adult lesions can arise from these Intimal thickening mainly involves the smooth muscles cells which lie in a proteoglycan-rich matrix. In early lesions, moderate cell replication can occur, but in adult lesions, they are mainly clonal. Fatty streaks are basically intimal xanthomata in which there is the accumulation of fat-laden macrophages. These lesions have lesser number of smooth muscle cells and the lesser number of T-lymphocytes. These are nonatherosclerotic lesions. In progressive atherosclerosis lesions, there can be stable or non-stable plaques. The plaques have intimal thickening with deposition of lipid. But there is no evidence of necrosis (Binder & Witztum, 2011). Smooth muscle cells and proteoglycans overly the area of plaques along with T-lymphocytes and macrophages. Healed atherosclerotic plaques are those which have had thrombotic lesions but have recovered.

The Legal Profession in the United Kingdom Essay

The Legal Profession in the United Kingdom - Essay Example Infact, it was these very men of the cloth who first put forward the idea of a legal profession, which encompassed the right of litigious representation in the courts of law (Encyclopaedia Britannica.) In the mean time, the native common law started to evolve under the aegis of a legal society called the Inns of Court (Encyclopaedia Britannica). However, unlike today, this institution did not furnish any special or formal courses for polishing the young entrants to be the legal practitioners (Encyclopaedia Britannica). In fact, the members of this institution acquired the skills and the rights to become the legal practitioners through experience and apprenticeship (Encyclopaedia Britannica.) Thus during the course of time, there developed a whole new range of legal agents in the UK. There were Serjeants who were considered to be the most elite of the advocates (Encyclopaedia Britannica). Then there existed the attorneys who enjoyed a legal validity and under whom served many apprentices (Encyclopaedia Britannica). These apprentices, as they gained experience with time, were alleviated to the post of barristers (Encyclopaedia Britannica). With the establishment of the Courts of Chancery in the 16th century, solicitors were recognized as the valid agents of law, though the serjeants and the barristers still managed to retain the right of advocacy in the courts (Encyclopaedia Britannica). However, the legal profession in the UK ... century, the attorneys and the solicitors were literally chucked out from the Inns of Court and the schism between the role of the advocates and the attorneys became more apparent (Encyclopaedia Britannica). In the due course of time, all the barristers working in the UK were given the name solicitor, who rather willingly agreed to serve the clients under the authority and tutelage of attorneys (Encyclopaedia Britannica). Thus, by this time, there existed only two types of legal agents in the whole of UK, which were the solicitors and the attorneys, and the demarcation of their roles become more stern and rigid than ever before.However, today the structure of the legal profession in the UK comprises of two branches that is the solicitors and the barristers. To put it simply, the role of the solicitors is primarily confined to extending legal advice to ones client, whereas the barristers actually represent their clients in the court rooms. That is, solicitors prepare and compile the p aperwork associated with a case while the barristers fight the case on behalf of their clients in the courts of law. Solicitors perform a variety of jobs for their clients that may include: Drafting and managing all the legal correspondence on the behalf of a client. Rendering and extending legal advice to the clients regarding the legal issue being faced by them in a given scenario. Extending the advice to the clients regarding the family law issues being faced by them that may include divorce, separation, child custody, division of assets, etc. Drafting the legal documents like contracts and agreements for business firms and corporations. Drafting of will for the clients. Conveyancing that is imparting legal advice and compiling and drafting the paper work for the

Milk Plant Essay Example for Free

Milk Plant Essay Activities related to various milk reception take place in this milk reception dock. Obviously, this section should have adequate space for unloading of cans, sampling, grading, weighing, testing and storage of milk and cleaning of cans. Generally this RMRD is provided with interconnected chain conveyors to transfer the cans from the unloading point to the weigh balance and from the outlet of the can washer to the loading point. Other equipment that find a place in this RMRD include weigh balance, dump tank, can washer etc. Milk Processing Section It is located next to the RMRD section. This section shall be spacious enough to accommodate milk chiller, pasteurizer (usually HTST in large dairies), homogenizer, cream separator, milk storage tanks, Cleaning In Place tanks (CIP tanks) and reconstitution unit. Raw milk tanks are generally located at an elevated level Milk Filling Section Sachet filing machines are installed in this section. Standardized, pasteurized milk is stored in tanks located at higher level than the ground to facilitate gravity feeding. The filled up pouches are transferred by conveyor belt and stored in crates and in turn the crates are moved to the chilling chamber which is located next to the milk filling section. Immediately next to the milk filling section is the crate washer room which supplies cleaned crates to the filling section continuously. Milk Production Section This section is located adjacent to the milk processing section. The surplus fat obtained during the cream separation operation is processed as cream and this section includes cream storage tanks, butter churn, butter melting vat, ghee boilers, ghee storage tanks and ghee filling and packaging units. Deep freezer capable of bringing down the temperatures up to -30 °C is kept in this section for preserving the dairy products. Byproduct section This room is located next to the milk product section. The equipment and the utensils that find a place in this section include casein drying unit, casein vat, sour cream separator, butter churn for sour cream and facilities to handle curdled milk. Parlour Products Section In this section, equipment for the value added products like ice cream, peda, masala butter milk, shrikhand etc are provided. Milk Drying Section. In a bigger dairy, milk condensing and drying units are usually installed. This include milk condensing plant, condensed milk tanks, homogenizer, spray or drum drying equipment, nitrogen packaging chamber, and tins and carton packaging units. Quality Control Laboratory The quality control section is generally located near or at least easily accessible to the raw milk receiving dock. It has facilities to test the fluid incoming milk, milk products testing, packaging materials testing, bacteriological and mycological analysis and AGMARK grading sections. Naturally, this section accommodates all the equipment required for the quality control tests. Refrigeration and Boiler Sections Though considered auxiliary to the main dairy operations, the refrigeration and boiler sections nevertheless, do play a vital role in the processing of milk and dairy products. They can be housed in the main dairy building itself or located in a separate building adjacent to the main plant. The refrigeration section consists of ammonia compressors, receivers, chilled water tanks, etc. Condensers are usually located on the roof of the refrigeration section or outside the building. The boiler section includes the boilers, water softening units, water tanks for soft water storage and coal storage or furnace oil storage section. UTILITY Power used-11kv Transformer-750VA transformer(step down) By using it we step down voltage levels from 33kv to 11kv for distribution to substations where the 11kv is further stepped down to 415v. [pic] Low tension panel is used- Metering Panel Board- These Metering Panel Boards are made of16/2mm/ 2. 5 mm cold rolled, mild steel metal clad, free standing, totally enclosed, cubicle type, fully compartmentalized, outdoor / indoor installations and suitable for operation on 11kV, 3ph, 50Hz. , and AC earthed system. The panel contains the equipments and components complete with bus bar interconnections, control wiring, designation labels, caution notices, EB sealing and pad locking facilities wherever required. [pic] MV PANEL- The Switchboards are designed and developed keeping in mind future expansion of the Industry. All the enclosures are fabricated out of 16/14 SWG CRCA steel sheets and they are also powder coated [pic] DISTRIBUTION PANEL Distribution Panels or panel board is a type of component of electricity supply system that is used for the division of electrical power feed into subsidiary circuits. It provides a protective fuse or circuit breaker in a common enclosure. There is provision of a main switch, one or more residual [pic] STEAM- PRESSURE OF STEAM-14kg/cm2, 14 bar Types of Boilers There are many different types of boilers in the boiler room today in a variety of heating applications. There are two main categories of boilers among the different types of boilers and those two categories are steam and hot water boilers. Either of those categories can be fueled by oil, gas, or electric (although electric is uncommon for steam boilers). They have different designs and piping configurations as a steam boiler system is designed to turned the water into steam and uses gravity and pressure to deliver the heat and the hot water boiler systems are designed to simply make hot water to be circulated (by a circulator or pump) through a piping system to provide heat. Typically, hot water boilers are more efficient than steam boilers for a few reasons. First, there is less heat loss throughout the hot water piping and the shell of the boiler because the hot water boiler operates at a lower temperature than the steam boiler. This means there is less heat loss throughout the entire boiler and piping system. Secondly, because the hot water boiler operates at a lower temperature, it requires less fuel or energy to convert into heat. What kind of boiler do you have in your boiler room? [pic] Water Tube Boilers Water tube boilers have many different tubes inside of it that have water circulating through them. Hot combustion gases surround these tubes and an exchange of heat is realized from the combustion gases to the tubes and water. The water tube boilers can be built for higher capacities and pressures than the fire tube boilers because the steam and/or hot water is confined in the tubes. Water Tube Boiler sizes range from from 10 million BTU/h boilers all way up to 300 million BTU/h and these boilers are generally found in medium to large commercial/industrial use and can be either steam or hot water boiler in low to high pressure boiler applications. These boilers can be either oil boiler, coal boiler, or gas fired boiler and pass hot flue gases around tubes filled with water. Boiler combustion efficiencies depend on several factors for these boilers including: whether it is steam boiler or hot water boiler, combustion controls, flue dampers, frequency of tune-ups and/or air and/or water pre-heaters (boiler economizers). Fire Tube Boilers Fire tube boilers confine the combustion process and gases in tubes and water circulates around these tubes. Some fire tube boilers have turbulators inside of the tubes to cause turbulence of the flue gases. This increases the heat absorption into the water which makes the boiler more efficient. Fire Tube Boilers range in sizes from . 6 million BTU/h up to 50 million BTU/h boiler these use hot flue gases passing through tubes submerged in water generally found in medium to large boiler commercial/industrial use and can be either steam or hot water boilers in low to medium pressure applications. Again as with the water tube boiler combustion efficiencies depend on several factors as noted above. There are various names applied to different fire tube boilers such as: Scotch Marine, locomotive, firebox, and vertical or horizontal return tube. Condensing Boilers [pic] Condensing Hot Water Boiler Between steam and hot water and water tube and fire tube boilers there exists conventional atmospheric boilers and condensing boilers. The condensing boiler is far more efficient than the conventional atmospheric boiler. A condensing boiler typically has two heat exchangers and absorbs more heat from the flue gases. It actually absorbs so much heat from the gases that moisture in the flue gases condenses and needs a drain to drain off. This condensed liquid is highly corrosive and it is necessary for the manufacturer to build the condensing boiler out of special materials to prevent corrosion to the equipment. Typically, the flue is PVC pipe or stainless steel and is resistant to the corrosive effects of the condensation. Additionally, because so much heat is removed from the flue gases, the products of the combustion process need help to be safely vented. Usually a fan is used to either push or pull these gases out of a vent. Condensing boilers are typically rated at 90 plus efficiency ratings whereas the conventional atmospheric boilers are typically rated at around 80 percent plus. Conventional Atmospheric Boilers Conventional atmospheric boilers do not use a blower motor to remove the combustion byproduct gases. Instead they rely on the combustion gases to have enough heat to cause the gases to rise through the flue and channeled safely outside of the dwelling. If for some reason too much heat is removed from the flue gases condensation can occur inside the flue or chimney. This condensation can have corrosive effects to both the flue and the chimney and cause severe problems. It is important that a qualified HVAC technician inspect the boiler and that they check of the temperature of the flue gases. Using a combustion analyzer, a qualified technician can tune the boiler to make sure that the temperature of the flue gases is set to optimum levels so that the gases will properly vent and that the gases do not have too much heat in them. If the flue gases are too hot then you are losing efficiency up the flue. If the flue gases do not have enough heat in them then you can have condensation issues which cause corrosion. Have your boiler checked and inspected at least annually to maintain optimum efficiency. Electric Boiler One other type not mentioned above is the electric boiler. One could say that an electric hot water heater is an electric boiler although there are electric boilers that can heat water to steam temperatures. Boilers can use many types of fuels (oil, gas, coal, wood, and electric power) to heat water (or other liquids) but the main focus of Boiler Types article was to categorize the mechanical aspects and differences. [pic] Designing a process line In the dairy raw milk passes through several stages of treatment in various types of processing equipment before reaching the consumer in the form of a finished, refined product. Production usually takes place continuously in a closed process, where the main components are connected by a system of pipes. The type of treatment involved and the design of the process depend on the end product. The process described in this chapter is general milk pasteurisation. This process is the basic operation in market milk processing, and also constitutes an important pretreatment stage in a chain of dairy processes such as cheesemaking and cultured milk production. The aim is to present some of 190 Dairy Processing Handbook/chapter 7 the considerations which the plant designer has to face when planning a whole milk pasteurisation plant. Process design considerations There are many aspects to be considered when a process line is designed. They can vary and be very complex, which places considerable demands on those responsible for the preliminary planning. Project engineering always involves a compromise between different requirements such as: †¢ Product-related – concerning the raw material, its treatment and the quality of the end product. †¢ Process-related – concerning plant capacity, selection of components and their compatibility, degree of process control, availability of heating and cooling media, cleaning of process equipment, etc. †¢ Economic – that the total cost of production to stipulated quality standards is as low as possible. †¢ Legal – legislation stipulating process parameters as well as choice of components and system solutions. Fig. 7. 1 Generalised block chart of the milk pasteurisation process. The process illustrated in figure 7. 1 deals with heat treatment – pasteurisation – of whole milk, e. g. market milk for sale to consumers. Some legal requirements In most countries where milk is processed into various products, certain requirements are laid down by law to protect consumers against infection by pathogenic micro-organisms. The wording and recommendations may vary, but the combination below covers the most commonly stated requirements: †¢ Heat treatment The milk must be heat treated in such a way that all pathogenic microorganisms are killed. A minimum temperature/holding time of 72 °C for 15 seconds Holding Tube Raw milk storage Heat Treatment intermediate storage Clarification process illustrated in figure 7. 1 deals with heat treatment – pasteurisation – of whole milk, e. g. market milk for sale to consumers Some legal requirements In most countries where milk is processed into various products, certain requirements are laid down by law to protect consumers against infection by pathogenic micro-organisms. The wording and recommendations may vary, but the combination below covers the most commonly stated requirements: †¢ Heat treatment The milk must be heat treated in such a way that all pathogenic microorganisms are killed. A minimum temperature/holding time of 72 °C for 15 seconds must be achieved. †¢ Recording The heating temperature must be automatically recorded and the transcript saved for a prescribed period of time. †¢ Clarification prior to heat treatment As milk often contains solid matter such as dirt particles, leucocytes (white blood corpuscles) and somatic cells (of udder tissue), it must be clarified. Since pasteurisation is less likely to be effective if bacteria are ensconced in lumps and particles in the milk, clarification must take place upstream of heating. Milk can be clarified in a filter or, more effectively, in a centrifugal clarifier. †¢ Preventing reinfection Heat exchangers are calculated so that a higher pressure should be maintained in the pasteurised milk flow compared to the unpasteurised milk and service media. If a leakage should occur in the heat exchanger, pasteurised milk must flow into the unpasteurised milk or cooling medium, and not in the opposite direction. In order to safeguard that a booster pump to create a pressure differential is often required and in certain countries it is mandatory. In the event of temperature drop in the pasteurised product due to a temporary shortage of heating medium, the plant must be provided with a flow diversion valve to divert the insufficiently heated milk back to the balance tank. Equipment required The following equipment is required for a remote controlled process: †¢ Silo tanks for storing the raw milk. †¢ Plate heat exchanger for heating and cooling, a holding tube and a hot water unit. †¢ Centrifugal clarifier (as only whole milk is to be treated, a centrifugal separator is not needed in this example). †¢ Intermediate storage tank for temporary storage of processed milk. †¢ Pipes and fittings for connecting main components and pneumatically operated vaves for controlling and distributing the product flow and cleaning fluids. †¢ Pumps for transportation of milk through the entire milk treatment plant. †¢ Control equipment for control of capacity, pasteurisation temperature and valve positions. †¢ Various service systems: – water supply – steam production. – refrigeration for coolant – compressed air for pneumatically operated units – electric power – drain and waste water. Most of the various service systems are described in chapter 6. 11. Service media requirements are calculated after the plant design is agreed upon. Thus the temperature programme for pasteurisation must be known, as well as the specifications for all other areas where heating and cooling are needed (cold storage, cleaning systems, etc. ), before the number and power of electrically operated machines, number of pneumatically operated units, working hours of the plant, etc.can be determined. Such calculations are not presented in this book. Choice of equipment Silo tanks The number and size of silo tanks are determined by the raw milk delivery schedules and volume of each delivery. In order to operate the plant continuously without stoppages due to lack of raw material, a 7-hour supply of [pic] raw milk must be available. Preferably the milk should have been stored for at least 1 – 2 hours before being processed, as natural degassing of the milk takes place during Legal requirements for: †¢ Heat treatment. †¢ Recording †¢ Clarification prior to heat treatment †¢ Preventing reinfection According to regulations set by the European Communities the heat treatment equipment must be approved or authorised by the competent authority and at least fitted with †¢ automatic temperature control †¢ recording thermometer †¢ automatic safety device preventing insufficient heating †¢ adequate safety system preventing the mixture of pasteurised or sterilised milk with incompletely heated milk and †¢ automatic recording device for the safety system referred to in the preceding intent. 192 Dairy Processing Handbook/chapter 7 that period of time. Short periods of agitation are acceptable, but agitation is not really needed until about 5 – 10 minutes before start of emptying, to equalise the overall quality. This avoids interference with the natural degassing process. Plate heat exchanger The main aim of pasteurising milk is to destroy pathogenic micro-organisms. To achieve this, the milk is normally heated to not less than 72 °C for at least 15 seconds and then cooled rapidly. These parameters are stipulated by law in many countries. [pic] When the relevant parameters are known, the platage (dimensioning) of the plate heat exchanger can be calculated. In the present example, the parameters are: †¢ Plant capacity 20 000 l/h †¢ Temperature programme 4 °C – 72 °C – 4 °C †¢ Regenerative effect 94% †¢ Temperature of the heating medium 74 – 75 °C †¢ Temperature of the coolant +2 °C The demand for service media (steam, water and ice-water) is also calculated, as this substantially influences the choice of valves for steam regulation and ice-water feed. Connection plates between the sections of the plate heat exchanger are provided with inlets and outlets for product and service media. The inlet and outlet connections can be oriented either vertically or horizontally. The ends of the plate heat exchanger (frame and pressure plate) can likewise be fitted with inlets and outlets. Dimensioning data for the plate heat exchanger are given in chapter 6. 1. Hot water heating systems Hot water or saturated steam at atmospheric pressure can be used as the heating medium in pasteurisers. Hot steam, however, is not used because of the high differential temperature. The most commonly used heating medium is therefore hot water typically about 2 – 3 °C higher than the required temperature of the product. Steam is delivered from the dairy boiler at a pressure of 600 – 700 kPa (6 – 7 bar). This steam is used to heat water, which in turn heats the product to pasteurisation temperature. The water heater in figure 7. 2 is a closed system consisting of a specially designed, compact and simple cassette type of plate heat exchanger (3) equipped with a steam regulating valve (2) and a steam trap (4). The service water is circulated by the centrifugal pump (5) via the heater (3) and the heating section of the pasteuriser. The function of the expansion vessel (7) is to compensate for the increase in the volume of the water that takes place when it is heated. The system also includes pressure and temperature indicators as well as safety and ventilation valves (8). Temperature control A constant pasteurisation temperature is maintained by a temperature controller acting on the steam regulating valve (ref. 2 in figure 7. 2). Any tendency for the product temperature to drop is immediately detected by a sensor in the product line before the holding tube. The sensor then changes the signal to the controller, which opens the steam regulating valve to supply more steam to the water. This increases the temperature of the circulating water and stops the temperature drop in the product. Holding The length and size of the externally located holding tube are calculated according to the known holding time and hourly capacity of the plant and the pipe dimension, typically the same as for the pipes feeding the pasteurisation plant. Dimensioning data for the holding tube are given in chapter 6. 1. Typically the holding tube is covered by a stainless steel hood to preventing people from being burnt when touching and from radiation as well. Pasteurisation control It is essential to be certain that the milk has in fact been properly pasteurised before it leaves the plate heat exchanger. If the temperature drops below 72 °C, the unpasteurised milk must be kept apart from the already pasteurised product. To accomplish this, a temperature transmitter and flow diversion valve are fitted in the pipe downstream of the holding tube. The valve returns unpasteurised milk to the balance tank if the temperature transmitter detects that the milk passing it has not been sufficently heated. Pasteuriser cooling system As already noted, the product is cooled mainly by regenerative heat exchange. The maximum practical efficiency of regeneration is about 94 – 95%, which means that the lowest temperature obtained by regenerative cooling is about 8 – 9 °C. Chilling the milk to 4 °C for storage therefore requires a cooling medium with a temperature of about 2 °C. Ice water can only be used if the final temperature is above 3 – 4 °C. For lower temperatures it is necessary to use brine or alcohol solutions to avoid the risk of freezing cooling media. The coolant is circulated from the dairy refrigeration plant to the point of use as shown in figure 7. 4. The flow of coolant to the pasteuriser cooling section is controlled to maintain a constant product outlet temperature. This is done by a regulating circuit consisting of a temperature transmitter in the outgoing product line, a temperature controller in the control panel and a regulating valve in the coolant supply line. The position of the regulating valve is altered by the controller in response to signals from the transmitter. The signal from the transmitter is directly proportional to the temperature of the product leaving the pasteuriser. This signal is often connected to a temperature recorder in the control panel and recorded on a graph, together with the pasteurisation temperature and the position of the flow diversion valve. Booster pump to prevent reinfection Care must be taken to avoid any risk of contamination of the pasteurised product by unpasteurised product or cooling medium. If any leakage should occur in the pasteuriser, it must be in the direction from pasteurised product to unpasteurised product or cooling medium. This means that the pasteurised product must be under higher pressure[pic] than the medium on the other side of the heat exchanger plates. A booster pump, ref. 2 in figure 7. 3, is therefore installed in the product line, either after the holding section or before the heating section. The latter position minimises the operating temperature of the pump and prolongs its life. The pump increases the pressure and maintains a positive differential pressure on the pasteurised product side, throughout the regenerative and cooling sections of the pasteuriser. Installation of a booster pump is specified in the legal requirements for pasteurisation in some coun The complete pasteuriser A modern milk pasteuriser, complete with equipment for operation, supervision and control of the process, is assembled of matching components into a sophisticated process unit. Balance tank The float-controlled inlet valve regulates the flow of milk and maintains a constant level in the balance tank. If the supply of milk is interrupted, the level will begin to drop. As the pasteuriser must be full at all times during operation to prevent the product from burning on to the plates, the balance tank is often fitted with a low-level electrode which transmits a signal as soon as the level reaches the minimum point. This signal actuates the flow diversion valve, which returns the product to the balance tank. The milk is replaced by water and the pasteuriser shuts down when circulation has continued for a certain time. Feed pump The feed pump supplies the pasteuriser with milk from the balance tank, which provides a constant head. Tries . [pic] Flow controller The flow controller maintains the flow through the pasteuriser at the correct value. This guarantees stable temperature control and a constant length of the holding time for the required pasteurisation effect. Often the flow controller is located after the first regenerative section. Regenerative preheating The cold untreated milk is pumped through the first section in the pasteuriser, the preheating section. Here it is regeneratively heated with pasteurised milk, which is cooled at the same time. If the milk is to be treated at a temperature between the inlet and outlet temperatures of the regenerative section, for example clarification at 55 °C, the regenerative section is divided into two sections. The first section is dimensioned so that the milk leaves at the required temperature of 55 °C. After being clarified the milk returns to the pasteuriser, which completes the regenerative preheating in the second section. Pasteurisation Final heating to pasteurisation temperature with hot water, normally of a temperature 2 – 3 °C higher than the pasteurisation temperature (? t = 2 – 3 °C), takes place in the heating section. The hot milk continues to an external tubular holding cell. After the hold, the temperature of the milk is checked by a sensor in the line. It transmits a continuous signal to the temperature controller in the control panel. The same signal is also transmitted to a recording instrument which records the pasteurisation temperature. Flow diversion A sensor after the holding cell transmits a signal to the temperature monitor. As soon as this signal falls below a preset value, corresponding to a specified minimum temperature, the monitor switches the flow diversion valve to diversion flow. In many plants the position of the flow diversion valve is recorded together with the pasteurisation temperature. For the location of the flow diversion valve, various solutions are available to satisfy local regulations and recommendations. Below are three alternatives which are commonly utilised: 1 The flow diversion valve is situated just after the holding cell. Where a booster pump is installed, the valve is located before the pump. If the temperature drops under preset level the valve diverts the flow to the balance tank and the pump stops. The flow in the regenerative and cooling sections thus comes to a standstill (even when no booster pump is integrated). After a short while, without temperature increase, the heat exchanger is emptied, cleaned and sanitised. When satisfactory heating is possible the plant is restarted. 2 The flow diversion valve is located after the cooling section of the plant. Following a drop of temperature the flow is diverted to the balance tank and the plant is emptied of product, cleaned and sanitised. The plant is then ready for restart when the temperature conditions are acceptable again. 3 The flow diversion valve is located between the holding cell and the boster pump. If the temperature drops the valve diverts the flow. The booster pump is not stopped, but other valves around the heat exchanger will automatically be positioned so that the milk in the regenerative and cooling sections will be circulated to maintain the right pressure in the plant. This also preserves a proper temperature balance. When the heating conditions are acceptable the process can be resumed without intermediate cleaning. Cooling After the holding section the milk is returned to the regenerative section(s) for cooling. Here the pasteurised milk gives up its heat to the cold incoming milk. The outgoing pasteurised milk is then chilled with cold water, icewater, a glycol solution or some other refrigerant, depending on the required temperature. The temperature of the chilled milk is normally recorded together with the pasteurisation temperature and the position of the flow diversion valve. The graph consequently shows three curves. Centrifugal clarifier As the milk in the present example is not going to be separated into skimmilk and cream, a centrifugal clarifier is shown in figure 7. 6.

Cutting Class Essay -- American Society

In his essay â€Å"Race Over† Orlando Patterson spoke of a shift in the underclass that will include more whites or â€Å"European Americans† if one wants to use the politically correct vernacular. He wrote of the middle class exodus to gated communities or rebuilt inner cities and an intermingling of the races (Patterson). I believe this to be true not only in the northeast but all over the country due to shrinkage of the middle class. The decimation of the once prosperous backbone of American society cannot be blamed on any one element. I do believe that the contributing factors are: corporate America’s practice of union busting, a poorly educated younger generation and ensuing inadequately skilled workforce, and the real estate housing bubble and subsequent foreclosure scam that followed. Ever have those Stella D’oro cookies or biscotti at your grandma’s house? Not bad for a store-bought cookie or pastry. That’s because since 1930 they were made by a family owned business that paid people a living wage. The workers at Stella were union members. They had benefits, paid vacations, sick days, all the great things you don’t have if you work at Wal-Mart or Sears, Kmart, most restaurants. These people knew other very well since some of them worked together for thirty years. Most of them were immigrant women from Latin America, with some from Italy, Greece, and Africa. â€Æ' The family that owned the business sold the company to the Nabisco/Kraft corporation (yes Tom Brady’s boss) for 100 million who then sold it to Brynwood Corp. fourteen years later for 17.5 million. Brynwood is known for buying companies, gutting them to make them look profitable, and then reselling them for a markup. When it came time to renegotiate the workers’ union contr... ...Arnold, Chris. â€Å"Freddie Mac Bets Against American Homeowners.† http://www.propublica.org/article/freddy-mac-mortgage-eisinger-arnold 30th Jan. 2012. 7th April 2012. Dwyer, Liz. â€Å"Detroit High Schools Teach How To Work at Walmart.† www.good.is. http://www.good.is/post/detroit-high-schools-teach-how-to-work-at-walmart/ 12th Feb. 2010. 7th April 2012. Fulton, Edithe A. â€Å"The Wal-Martization of Education.† www.blackcommentator.com http://www.blackcommentator.com/75/75_walmart_njea.html 29th Jan.2004. 7th April 2012. â€Æ' NYC Educator. â€Å"The Wal-Martization of Education.† nyceducator.com http://nyceducator.com/2007/12/walmartization-of-education.html 3rd Dec. 2007. 7th April 2012. Toppo, Greg. â€Å"How Bush education law has changed our schools.† www.usatoday.com http://www.usatoday.com/news/education/2007-01-07-no-child_x.htm 8th Jan. 2007. 7th April 2012.

Indigenous Peoples of the Americas and Guatemalan Culture Essay

Guatemala’s culture is a unique product of Native American ways and a strong Spanish colonial heritage. About half of Guatemala’s population is mestizo (known in Guatemala as ladino), people of mixed European and indigenous ancestry. Ladino culture is dominant in urban areas, and is heavily influenced by European and North American trends. Unlike many Latin American countries, Guatemala still has a large indigenous population, the Maya, which has retained a distinct identity. Deeply rooted in the rural highlands of Guatemala, many indigenous people speak a Mayan language, follow traditional religious and village customs, and continue a rich tradition in textiles and other crafts. The two cultures have made Guatemala a complex society that is deeply divided between rich and poor. This division has produced much of the tension and violence that have marked Guatemala’s history (Guatemalan Culture and History). Much of Guatemalan life revolves around families. Guatemalans say that parents are espejos (mirrors): through them, you learn who you are and what you can become. Children are able to depend on their parents for advice and guidance throughout their lives. Family members tend to live near each other, and Guatemalans rarely live or spend much time alone. Families also care for elderly relatives, and godparents (padrinos) are considered an important part of the family. Guatemalan women tend to marry young and have many children. Women give birth at home, though in cities they may go to a hospital (family life). The typical rural family is industrious; men usually work the fields, while women care for the children and weave beautiful textiles with motifs that are unique to each community. A diet of corn, beans, and a wide variety of fresh fruits and vegetables is standard. Chicken and rice dishes are also common. Beef or pork is less common among the poorer classes, but popular among middle and upper sectors in both town and country. Among a variety of native dishes, on festive occasions Guatemalans of all classes serve tamales made of cornmeal with a variety of vegetable and meat fillings wrapped in a banana leaf (Guatemalan Culture and History). Guatemala is home to a centuries-old weaving tradition through which indigenous women assert a sense of â€Å"belongingness† to family and community. The women and their families are descendants of the ancient Maya Indians, and the tools of their trade are cotton yarn, the backstrap loom, and time-proven patterns and techniques. Each village and region is identifiable for its own weaving design and colors. Techniques and designs are passed from mother to daughter and traditional clothes are still preferred by most. Some believe that the different patterns existed before the Spaniards arrived. Others believe they were brought from Europe. It is known that the conquistadors used the clothing to label people and control the populations. The traditional technique was to wrap the threads on a warping board, and then mount them on back-strap loom where a panel was woven. Panels were decorated with brocade designs depending on the textile tradition of the weaver’s community as well as her personal taste and skills. Finally, the woven panels were sewn together to make a garment (Guatemalan Culture). Poverty affects both urban and rural Guatemalans, but rural residents, including most of the Maya population, generally live under harsher conditions. Wiggins 4 More than 70% of rural residents are classified as living in extreme poverty, compared to 36% of urban inhabitants. 83% of Guatemalans have access to sanitation. About 54% of the population has access to health care, but the majority of doctors are around Guatemala City. Rates of sexually transmitted diseases and reproductive tract infections (RTIs) among Guatemalan women are high and are on the rise. Malnutrition affects about 60% of the young children (Guatemalan Culture and History). Guatemala has a young population, with 16% under age 5 and 27% age 5-15. The birth rate of 36 per 1000 population is five times the death rate. Guatemala’s people suffer from one of the highest infant mortality rates in Central America, 49 deaths per 1000 live births. Life expectancy at birth is 66 years (63 years for males and 68 for females), among the lowest in the region (Guatemalan Culture and History). The literacy rate for Guatemalans over the age of 15 stood at 56% of the population in 1995, among the lowest rates in Central America. Elementary education is free and compulsory, and 84% of the school-age children attend primary school. The enrollment ratio dropped to 25% for secondary schools. Wiggins 5 Enrollment figures are lower in rural areas than in urban areas. Many rural schools only go to third grade, and much of the nation’s education budget is spent in Guatemala City (Guatemalan Culture and History). Religion is important to Guatemalan life. Each village has a Catholic church; at home, people light candles to honor saints. While the majority of Guatemalans identify themselves as Roman Catholic, the form of Catholicism found in Guatemala, particularly in Mayan areas, differs from that of many other countries. Some people turn to traditional prayer men called brujos, ajkunes and chuchkujawes. These men are believed to have special powers for planting and removing curses, foretelling the future, and asking God to heal sick and bring back love or lost objects. Brujos hold their rituals in houses or caves, using offerings of incense and liquor (spirituality). A typical Sunday is spent for going to church, visiting others or being with family. Relatives stop by and families promenade in the streets, dressed in their best clothes. After a family meal, the afternoon might be devoted to a basketball game between cousins, or a visit to a local park or riverbank (Sports and Recreation). Men and women tend to socialize with their own sex. Male companionship is very important to men. Several times a week, men meet over coffee or beer with friends they have known since childhood to talk, play cards or watch soccer. Many men confide in their male friends more than their wives. Women are less likely to leave home in the evenings, although female co-workers sometimes get together for coffee after work. If woman do not work outside the home, daily chores and shopping are opportunities to socialize with other women during the day (Sports and Recreation). Guatemala’s climate is mild which allows people to relax and socialize outdoors much of the year. Children run around outside playing games such as â€Å"thieves and police,† hide and seek, tenta (tag) and electisado (statues). Children also play with simple materials such as shells and stones, and girls make dolls out of dough. Some school grounds have soccer fields, and the game is popular with both sexes. Boys also enjoy baseball, while girls prefer basketball or volleyball. A favorite evening activity is clustering on street corners to listen to ghost stories, including the one about the fearsome â€Å"man with the big sombrero. † Playtime is more limited for poorer children, who must help their parents on farms or with crafts (Sport and Recreation). Spanish is the official language of Guatemala, but the indigenous people of Guatemala have maintained a distinct identity, centered on lands and villages in the western highlands. Many speak a Mayan language rather than Spanish. Although most are poor by material standards, their lifestyle is ecologically and spiritually satisfying to them, and they have largely chosen to remain isolated from national life. The Guatemalan government at times has tried to suppress indigenous culture, make Spanish the universal language, and promote European ways (Guatemalan Culture and History).